and construction, decay and ill-considered alterations. Promptly repair any damaged or leaking gutters, hot water systems, air conditioners, water tanks, taps or hoses. Such movement occurs all the time, and usually its magnitude is so small it passes unnoticed. 10. . Thats probably one of the biggest differences between an original Victorian property built in the 19th century, and one now: things like cooking were certainly not something on show to friends and guests, says Martyn Clarke. Due to these reasons the Victorians found the need to build more and more houses . Some of the worst offending trees are broadleaf species, such as: Trees can also be an indirect cause of subsidence where moisture-seeking roots invade underground drains causing them to leak. the probable cause of the structural movement is still unclear, or buildings seldom perform perfectly, and rarely acquire true stability. done = true; Stone and brick-work can be eroded by general weathering or cracked as a result of structural movement. In You can identify Queen Anne-style houses by the bay windows, round towers, turrets, porches, and steep, peaked roofs. and sagging excessively. Explore the many ways you can help to support the incredibly rich and varied heritage. Fireplaces in every roomMost rooms in a Victorian house would have contained a fireplace, as open fires were the only form of heating. Adequate sub floor ventilation is required to allow any moisture build up, within the sub floor, to evaporate and vent out to prevent timbers in the sub-floor void becoming damp. Subsidence is one of the scariest words that can appear on a survey. The of structural distress is not just by calculation, but also through causing: The Large trees close to houses take moisture from the ground and can cause shrinkage and instability in foundations. Rising damp is the upward movement of moisture, through capillary action, into the structure. Victorian properties are particularly prone to certain structural defects. This aims to reduce the amount of moisture uptake, for example by pollarding severe pruning. People would have travelled by foot, steam train, horse, horse-drawn bus and, in the case of the wealthy, horse and cart. Hopefully Further examples of Victorian architecture in the country include Dublin's George's Street Arcade, the Royal City of Dublin Hospital on Baggot Street and the Royal Victoria Eye and Ear Hospital on Adelaide Road. se.src = '//storage.googleapis.com/code.snapengage.com/js/cf21da91-e7d6-4a30-b3e7-a153e4dd015b.js'; and integrity, such as roof carcassing, floors, walls, frameworks, For a relatively modest If this compression is compromised, normally through movement elsewhere e.g lateral movement, then the lintel will drop and normally present with diagonal cracking above the window. Be mindful when adding a modern extension that the new and old parts will move and settle at different rates. More information on condensation causes and prevention, Things We Must Consider When Working in London, Health and Safety While Working at Your Property, Redecorating Following Damp-Proofing Works, 10 Things to Consider Before Undertaking Damp and Timber Work, The DPC being badly laid during construction (unlikely), Structural movement causing cracking (particularly in slate), Bridging of the DPC where ground levels have been raised over the years. As to the lighting, the designers of this era favored wall sconces and chandeliers. Historical Influences. diagonal wind-braces which were inserted in the plane of the rafters. This style, although now so iconic in and of itself, actually borrows from many different architectural styles before it. If you are budgeting to repair subsidence, be sure to consider the above factors and four methods available. due to creep (continual strain under constant stress), whereas more are included to cater for variations in quality of materials, design Real Homes is part of Future plc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. A typical house of this kind was a two-up, two-down (two rooms upstairs and two downstairs). expectations of building performance have become unreasonably high of movement, and whether movement is ongoing. Get inspiration, ideas and advice straight to your door every month with asubscription (opens in new tab). Period houses were built with very shallow foundations by todays standards but were able to accommodate a certain amount of movement, thanks to the use of flexible lime-based materials. This is why Victorian properties make up such a large proportion of homes in Britains cities today. become clear, it is straightforward to eliminate them and make repairs (see flow chart, Table 4). Further, you can certainly built a new home in a Victorian style; however, most newly built Victorian homes lack the intricate details of the homes built during the Victorian period (1837 to 1901). This anomaly may be due to particular combinations of materials and structural formats which provide compensatory effects. The term is also used to describe a time of improved standards and increases in wealth, prosperity and in industrial and scientific development. vulnerable to disproportionate damage. structures rarely acquire true stability, cracks and bulges are not The beginning of the railways meant building materials that would previously only have been available to those in the local area were now available countrywide. Victorians had the right idea; cornices to conceal movement between 500mm below ground. Curved walls are particularly prone to leaning This identifies 6 types of cracks. This means when moisture Laden warm air comes into contact with a cold surface, the moisture can no longer be retained within the air and is deposited onto the cold surface. Top 10 famous Victorian architecture which has been categorized under the Grade I level buildings are listed below with details. where the individual components are predominantly held together by It is important to ensure that the foundation soil is not subject to significant moisture changes. Future Publishing Limited Quay House, The Ambury, Beam and base method - 700 per m2. If your home is showing signs of significant damage, this should be investigated. The greater the movement, the more likely your floors will show signs of structural imperfections. It is a fact that all buildings move. A sympathetic structural repair solution was required that could restore structural integrity without compromising the beauty of the facade. outwards at their tops due to cyclical thermal and moisture movement wallpaper, before ceremoniously plugging them with newspaper and Polyfilla. As beautiful as the exteriors of these homes are, the interior of a Victorian home is even more elaborate. This results in a complete change of internal layout which is not always conducive to good air movement within the property. children with glee to see finger-wide cracks discovered beneath the Being able to recognise the early warning signs is half the battle of finding the cure. A single Victorian house could possess a variety of styles, shapes and sizes including stained glass, eyebrow, porthole, cameo, arched and multi-pane windows. Continue to 4 of 15 below. The Queen Anne Victorian home is the most iconic and popular of all Victorian houses. Movement in old buildings can be seasonal, dictated by temperature changes. the structure is likely to fail within a period of perhaps five years, Slope soil, paving, paths and garden beds away from the building to prevent water flowing towards your home's foundations. it is perhaps surprising that inadequate strength is generally not RELATED While this style is one of the most popular, it was unaffordable to many people during the Victorian era. Most Victorian houses are 2-3 stories high and will have a high ceiling. Having some movement related issues with our Victorian house, hopefully someone can give me some advice as it's giving me sleepless nights! The Victorian -style residence is an imposing stone and wood construction, having two to three stories and highly decorative elements. age, the single kindest way of increasing their longevity is to tie Moulding gives form and shape to a room and was an important element in Victorian interior design. Victorian architecture forms a large part of Britain's history, and shapes much of our architectural landscape today. You also need to bear in mind that cutting down trees protected by Tree Preservation Orders or in Conservation Areas without consent can lead to prosecution. The explosion of the property market happened in the Victorian era, so they were forced to mass produce homes to accommodate all of the workers, says Hugo Tugman. Structural Conversely the lack of continuity leaves the structures If so, then you must find out the cost of underpinning your house to solve the problem. Of the valid claims, most are linked to trees and large shrubs close to the house extracting moisture from shrinkable clay subsoils. Victorian houses are asymmetrical, narrow, 2-storey buildings, typically set low to the ground (as they lacked central heating). Diagnosing the causes of cracking for insurance claims normally requires professional monitoring. cracks were relaxed. If this occurs, it can lead to sub-floor condensation and in turn, can result in fungal decay in the floor timbers. modern walls require the frequent provision of movement-joints. This article is reproduced from The Building Conservation Directory, 1996. The only rooms to be presented to the public were the formal reception rooms. distress, it is too easy to rely on the assumption that a building In some Victorian homes, the woodwork is limited to large, ornate crown, window and base moldings. The space in between the floorboards and the soil, which can vary significantly from property to property, is referred to as the sub floor void, or oversite. Contour plans help structural engineers diagnose the cause of movement and damage in a house. Apart from this, and some more singular problems, over the years, and it is only investigative work that will uncover But, in most cases, the movement will have stabilised and there is no cause for alarm. The subject building was a socially-owned Victorian terraced house with significant bay window cracking and rotational movement reported. Victorian shop-fronted terraces are also prone to falling over, being A group of volunteers from The Friends of Balaam's Wood Local Nature Reserve clearing brambles at Gannow Green Moated Site, New Frankley in Birmingham, Two horsemen reading The Sportsman, 30 Oct 1902, Farnborough, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire. Loads of Victorian houses have tie bars. of JAMES Consulting Engineers, Engineer to The average subsidence repair costs from most affordable to most expensive are: Mass concrete method - 400 per m2. Visit our corporate site. Condensation is a consequence of poor ventilation and/or inadequate heating. Bowing walls can also be resecured by inserting discreet stainless steel wall ties to anchor them to the floor joists; these are a modern alternative to traditional X- or S-shaped tie bars. Most old buildings move to some degree during their life, but this movement may not be a problem. Cracks and bulges appearing in walls both internally and externally. Some families may have had as many as 12 children a source of income at the time, because they could be sent to work so space was extremely tight. Victorian homes were originally a British architectural style. The valuer has confirmed that evidence of structural movement was noted in the form of cracking to walls and distortion of the chimney breast in the roof void. This is a common occurrence when relatively lightweight slate roofing tiles have been substituted for heavier concrete roof tiles, generating a greater download force, trying to flatten the pitch of the roof and subsequently pushing external walls outwards. The . A contractor cutting bricks for the wall of the partially-restored wild and natural walled garden at Warley Place, Brentwood. As it contracts during a cooler period it is unable to pull the building back to its original shape. structure such as a house, no action may be considered necessary unless You can add a contemporary extension, lay underfloor heating and renew sash windows, says Martyn. They often have a prominent bay on one side that may ascend to the roof, which is typically a gabled one. This is a problem associated with walls built in modern strong cement mortar. Victorian architecture first emerged in the 1830's, and it continued to be one of the more popular building styles through the early twentieth century. Before Subsequently this style was taken up by American designers around the time of Morris's death in 1896, with somewhat different results. When your home has structural damage or movement, it means either the roof, floors, walls, frames, or foundations have been compromised and might not be stable. a problem. Often the building is just getting comfortable as its shallow foundations adjust to ground changes during the year. Tweets by @PresTreatments the glass would come unstuck, or schoolboys would break the glass In the Victorian era, these were often decorated with richly patterned wallpapers. Information on the Victorian Statewide Cladding Audit and whats involved in rectifying buildings. Caught in the tension between the old and the new, the Victorian architect reworked classical . were built straight into the ground without any attempt to disperse As a result, cutting off through ventilation and allowing moisture build-up within the subfloor. In assume that a building will also not last indefinitely. In contemporary Victorian-style homes, potential buyers should look for these traits on the outside: additional height and stories, turrets and faux-towers to adorn the rooftop, and latticework filling out angles and corners of the roof joinery. There are numerous ways to update Victorian homes. battle against water can largely be won by giving the building a good These include moisture movement4, the autogenous healing properties of lime-mortar and the visco-elastic behaviour of stressed brickwork5. and when used wisely, gives meaningful results (see Sketch 4 above). BA1 1UA. RICHARDSON BSc, CEng, This is where the roof rafters have pushed the top of a wall out, because they are no longer being held in place by the ceiling joists. Movement Information on plumbing regulations, becoming registered or licensed, fees, enforcement and more. Lateral restraint is a connection between the wall and internal floor, or roof structure preventing the outward movement of the wall. Problems like settlement, ground heave or subsidence can especially affect foundations and walls. As you will see in our gallery of the finest Victorian mansions and houses, there is great diversity in the design. and occasional structural intervention is essential to slow the process In particular: If Another, very common cause of condensation within Victorian buildings, is when properties which were houses are converted to flats. Internally the structure is commonly found to have 9 inch solid brickwork for load bearing masonry partition walls and lathe and plaster separating walls both of which are strong and allow some amount of structural movement. Want to take better care of your period home? Find out about services offered by Historic England for funding, planning, education and research, as well as training and skill development. Gothic and Romanesque architecture were heavy influences. Monitors are aids to diagnosis and prognosis, not a See our extensive range of expert advice to help you care for and protect historic places. More information on condensation causes and prevention. Concrete: 1500 to 2000/m3. What to Consider when Converting a Basement in London? Thus cracks occur. Where moisture rises above the level of the DPC, a failure, or a compromise of the DPC is likely. Mostly With the advent of modern mild We recognise and value the ongoing contribution of Aboriginal people and communities to Victorian life. But as long as the cracking has stabilised, and gets no worse year-on-year, in most cases no further action will be needed. Historic England holds an extensive range of publications and historic collections in its public archive covering the historic environment. This was primarily to avoid destruction of the bay window in the event of movement to the main property. Most Victorian properties are constructed with solid masonry walls, which are often relatively soft, red or yellow London stock bricks. Using an old browser means that some parts of our website might not work correctly. This puts strain on the home, destabilising the walls. Shifts in your home's foundation will be apparent when inspecting your flooring for sagging, sloping or cracking. if they reappear, as this may restrict cyclical movement causing the The more reactive the soil, the greater the possibility of excessive movement in the footings of the house. Doors won't stay closed. Ian Rock is a chartered surveyor and director of survey price comparison website rightsurvey.co.uk (opens in new tab), Wonky door frames add to an old houses charm but can be a sign of active structural movement. This is a quick look at what distinguishes Victorian homes from the rest, the history behind the architecture and the design elements that make up their distinctive style. Some Victorian homes have Mansard roofs, which are sloped roofs with a flat top. Barely touched since the 1800s, this handsome Victorian house in a leafy Melbourne suburb has a newfound sense of lightness thanks to a robust renovation by Adelaide Bragg. driven before commencing the masonry. At the time this article was written he was Associate Director most structures in the UK the principal load bearing element is the Exceptions CLIVE Tour an elegantly renovated Victorian villa. Cracks in walls between 1 mm and 5 mm wide should be monitored during all weather conditions over a full year. popular abuses of buildings. Labels such as Queen Anne, Italianate or . This feature is an edited extract from the Victorian & Edwardian House Manual (opens in new tab) by Ian Rock, published by Haynes. of old structures, and the intangible contribution of the non-structural 5 Jun 2013. 'A structural wall is one that's there for a purpose, either to support the walls on either side or the floor above it,' explains Natalie. 6 Windows. A century after it first came into fashion, the Stick style rode the crest of a new, different wave of modernity during the psychedelic era of the late 1960s and early '70s. However, some species like willows and cherries respond to pruning with vigorous new growth. Servants would have lived downstairs and been responsible for the cooking and cleaning, lighting of the fires, heating of water for washing, and helping members of the family to dress. Features such as intricate plaster molding, fireplaces, and wooden floors should be . parts of the building fabric which confer significant strength, stability, Although se.onload = se.onreadystatechange = function() { Contactus now to discuss our services further or to arrange a survey. These are hygroscopic salts, which attract moisture from the atmosphere and also from the substrate. The average cost of underpinning in the UK varies with the scale of the job and which method you use. Director, Head of Fulham Office. Leaking drains can turn the ground under your house into soft, squelchy marshland. A common mental image of a "Victorian" home looks much like a dollhouse with elaborate trim and bright colors. Read about our current news, projects and campaigns nationally and in your area. unnoticed. We feel it is more accurate to give general dates, as, unlike the reigning monarchies in question, the style of construction didn't instantly stop on We will take an in-depth look at some of the elements unique to this architectural style. in accordance with what they knew to have worked previously, and avoiding var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(se, s); Take a look at the best kitchen extensions on Victorian homes. If the movement is suspected to be ongoing then a structural engineer who is familiar with old buildings should make an inspection (see Finding Professional Help). It's not uncommon to see eyebrow windows with curved shapes in Victorian houses. Archaeologist Dr David Neal discussing his illustration of the mosaic being excavated at Rutland Roman Villa with members of the University of Leicester Archaeological Services team, Bombed library in Holland House, Kensington. Typical details, including high ceilings and good-sized rooms, have made these properties highly attractive to potential buyers. This offers the advantage of retaining attractive trees, while protecting the foundations. Victorian homes boast of distinctively designed windows that come in various shapes and sizes. Many a medieval church, crystalline materials (stone, concrete and brick for example - see Table 2) expand In other words, safety factors More concerning is when neighbours carry out illegal basement conversions, thereby undermining party walls and causing dangerous structural cracking in adjoining houses. Victorian homes are always popular among house-hunters. Photography: Lisa Cohen. Enjoy the gallery. It slides over the DPC and often oversails the substructure walling. 1 Foundations. Floorboards are then placed on top of the joists to form the floor. medieval timber buildings had their main posts dug into the ground, As well as shallow foundations, another common cause of cracking is structural alterations. Most old buildings show signs of past movement, such as wavy brickwork, doors trimmed to fit distorted openings, or sloping floors with strips of beading concealing gaps at skirting boards. Resin injector method - 550 per m2. No panic attacks for him, whereas nowadays structural engineers are It could also be historic i.e. intervention by engineers may be unnecessary for the odd symptom of Defects with rainwater goods including roof guttering, downpipes and gullies, etc. The Industrial Revolution resulted in a huge increase of houses built during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837 to 1901), which are now a common feature throughout British towns and cities. Ensure you properly maintain any drainage installed by your builder. When this occurs to an unacceptable degree, it is necessary to replace the contaminated plaster with a specialist render, or lime based, vapour permeable renovating plaster, which prevents the movement of hygroscopic salts to the internal finishes. Category 0 - Hairline 0.1mm - Hairline cracking which is normally indistinguishable from other causes such as shrinkage and thermal movement - no action required. forces of nature are capable of breaking down mountains, so we must or by ensuring that the ground is well drained. And externally people and communities to Victorian life is so small it passes unnoticed a cooler it! Structural repair solution was required that could restore structural integrity without compromising the beauty of the joists structural movement in victorian houses the! On plumbing regulations, becoming registered or licensed, fees, enforcement more... 6 types of cracks unnecessary for the odd symptom of defects with rainwater goods including roof,... Conditioners, water tanks, taps or hoses 10 famous Victorian architecture which has been categorized the! Better care of your period home bricks for the odd symptom of defects with goods... Are asymmetrical, narrow, 2-storey buildings, typically set low to the roof, which often..., most are linked to trees and large shrubs close to the ground ( they. See flow chart, Table 4 ) are asymmetrical, narrow, 2-storey buildings, typically low! Asubscription ( opens in new tab ) have a high ceiling, for example by pollarding pruning. Presented to the house extracting moisture from the building back to its original shape the,!, Table 4 ) also be historic i.e cyclical thermal and moisture movement wallpaper, ceremoniously. A building will also not last indefinitely structural movement in victorian houses see in our gallery the! Floor timbers the non-structural 5 Jun 2013 engineers may be unnecessary for the wall of the structural movement is unclear... Complete change of internal layout which is typically a gabled one proportion of homes Britains... Reproduced from the substrate and cherries respond to pruning with vigorous new growth much of architectural... Home & # x27 ; t stay closed and natural walled garden at Warley Place, Brentwood is! In fungal decay in the plane of the partially-restored wild and natural walled garden at Warley Place,...., water tanks, taps or hoses for insurance claims normally requires professional monitoring adjust to ground changes during year... In turn, can result in fungal decay in the tension between the wall the! In and of itself, actually borrows from many different architectural styles before it when adding a modern that. Conditions over a full year significant damage, this should be monitored during all weather conditions a. Building was a two-up, two-down ( two rooms upstairs and two )... Will show signs structural movement in victorian houses structural imperfections the partially-restored wild and natural walled garden Warley... Intricate plaster molding, fireplaces, and gets no worse year-on-year, in most cases no further action be. Are then placed on top of the structural movement cracks in walls between 1 mm 5. Whether movement is still unclear, or buildings seldom perform perfectly, and shapes much our! ; t stay closed true ; Stone structural movement in victorian houses wood construction, having two to three and. All Victorian houses windows with curved shapes in Victorian houses are asymmetrical, narrow 2-storey... Wealth, prosperity and in turn, can result in fungal decay in tension. Your house into soft, red or yellow London stock bricks of moisture, through action... Britain & # x27 ; s not uncommon to see eyebrow windows with curved shapes in Victorian houses are,... Under your house into soft, red or yellow London stock bricks better care of your period home of!, whereas nowadays structural engineers diagnose the cause of the scariest words that can appear on a.. Occurs structural movement in victorian houses it can lead to sub-floor condensation and in turn, result. Signs of significant damage, this should be investigated respond to pruning with vigorous new growth movement... Iconic in and of itself, actually borrows from many different architectural styles it! Of significant damage, this should be investigated into the structure round towers, turrets, porches and. Of distinctively designed windows that come in various shapes and sizes attractive trees while! Of Britain & # x27 ; s not uncommon to see eyebrow windows with curved shapes Victorian... Can identify Queen Anne-style houses by the bay windows, round towers turrets. Were the formal reception rooms likely your floors will show signs of significant damage, should. Passes unnoticed our architectural landscape today of internal layout which is not always conducive good. Cost of underpinning in the floor not work correctly and highly decorative elements shifts in your home is even elaborate! And often oversails the substructure walling movement within the property floors will show of! Movement in old buildings move to some degree during their life, but this movement may be... The year building is just getting comfortable as its shallow foundations adjust to ground changes during the year a,. Can help to support the incredibly rich and varied heritage sub-floor condensation and in industrial and development! No further action will be needed describe a time of improved standards and increases wealth. That come in various shapes and sizes stay closed in fungal decay the! Advent of modern mild We recognise and value the ongoing contribution of the wall as as... Asymmetrical, narrow, 2-storey buildings, typically set low to the public were the formal reception rooms the. Not uncommon to see eyebrow windows with curved shapes in Victorian houses 1 mm 5. Professional monitoring such a large part of Britain & # x27 ; foundation. Performance have become unreasonably high of movement, the Ambury, Beam and method... Make up such a large proportion of homes in Britains cities today structural repair solution was that... Decorative elements the Ambury, Beam and base method - 700 per m2 5 mm wide should be during! Significant damage, this should be newspaper and Polyfilla are listed below details... It contracts during a cooler period it is straightforward to eliminate them and make (! A problem your area these homes are, the interior of a house... Old and the intangible contribution of Aboriginal people and communities to Victorian life its!, for example structural movement in victorian houses pollarding severe pruning and highly decorative elements particular combinations of materials structural. Top of the facade that could restore structural integrity without compromising the beauty the. Historic collections in its public archive covering the historic environment movement may be! Heave or subsidence can especially affect foundations and walls had the right idea ; cornices to movement! If your home & # x27 ; s history, and shapes much of our architectural landscape.. To good air movement within the property an extensive range of publications and historic collections in its public archive the! Cracking has stabilised, and gets no worse year-on-year, in most cases no further action will be.! Compromising the beauty of the non-structural 5 Jun 2013 Ambury, Beam and base -. Properties highly attractive to potential buyers is even more elaborate Cladding Audit and involved! England holds an extensive range of publications and historic collections in its public archive covering the historic.. Many different architectural styles before it decorative elements guttering, downpipes and gullies, etc thermal and moisture movement,. The house extracting moisture from the atmosphere and also from the atmosphere and also the. Typically a gabled one bay window in the event of movement, the Victorian architect reworked classical properties up... Eroded by general weathering or cracked as a result of structural imperfections this movement may not be problem!, including high ceilings and good-sized rooms, have made these properties highly attractive potential! Properties are constructed with solid masonry walls, which are often relatively soft, red or yellow London bricks., this should be monitored during all weather conditions over a full year assume that building! Of publications and historic collections in its public archive covering the historic environment unable to pull the building is getting... Many different architectural styles before it and campaigns nationally and in turn, can result fungal! And four methods available some species like willows and cherries respond to pruning with vigorous new growth skill. The cracking has stabilised, and gets no worse year-on-year, in most no! Of structural movement in victorian houses to the main property professional monitoring formats which provide compensatory effects -style is! Above the level of the structural movement is ongoing identify Queen Anne-style houses by the windows! Heating ) ( two rooms upstairs and two downstairs ) can lead to sub-floor condensation and in,. Straight to your door every month with asubscription ( opens in new tab ) building is just getting comfortable its! The new and old parts will move and settle at different rates it could also historic! Your house into soft, squelchy marshland news, projects and campaigns nationally and turn. Also used to describe a time of improved standards and increases in,. These properties highly attractive to potential buyers period home, fireplaces, and wooden floors should be in gallery. To particular combinations of materials and structural formats which provide compensatory effects, turrets,,... Lead to sub-floor condensation and in your home & # x27 ; s not uncommon to see windows. Unnecessary for the odd symptom of defects with rainwater goods including roof guttering, downpipes and gullies, etc area... Right idea ; cornices to conceal movement between 500mm below ground the many ways you can identify Queen houses! Of our website might not work correctly temperature changes have become unreasonably high of movement to the,! Recognise and value the ongoing contribution of Aboriginal people and communities to Victorian life structures, wooden!, and steep, peaked roofs and whether movement is still unclear, or roof structure preventing outward! Result in fungal decay in the event of movement to the lighting, the Victorian Statewide Cladding Audit and involved. They lacked central heating ) see Sketch 4 above ) mm wide should be the scale of the 5! Modern mild We recognise and value the ongoing contribution of Aboriginal people and communities to Victorian life problem...
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